The Treasury of Well-Turned Verse

The poetry in this collection was compiled by Vidyakara while he studied at the Buddhist monastery in Jagaddala (ca. 1100 CE). The poems are mostly court lyrics, meant to impart a certain mood, rather than mimic real scenes in life. The poems are extremely formal in structure, but their subjects vary from the Hindu gods, to jealousy, to the seasonal fauna.

The Rains (Anonymous)

The peacock calls gently to his mate who tarries,
and glances once again toward the sky;
then, leaping from his stagem the earth,
making a parasol of his unfolded tail,
to the sound of thunder sweet as loud reverberations of a drum
he performs his joyful dance.

The language used here evokes beauty and the happiness found in freely fulfilling one's dharma. Here the peacock meets his duties joyfully; this brings him closer to the rightness found in nature.

Early Winter (Anonymous)

Now are the days when the winter wind sets forth,
friendly days to the jasmine
but death to the beauty of the lotus ponds.
Now women, suffering from the cold,
although their lovers' faults be deep,
welcome by feigning sleep a tight embrace.

This poem captures the despondent complacency of early winter, with the sadness of days growning colder, and quietly celebrates the forced dependence on other humans. The last lines reveal that human pride can be easily overcome by the necessity for human warmth--a necessity which springs from love. This poem, though reflecting on "death to the beauty of lotus ponds," is still hopeful; it reveals that there is something deeper than beauty or hurt that binds people together, and keeps them from suffering alone in the winter's cold.

Spring (Samghasri)

The lotus pond is bristling with pink buds;
the nights grow shorter while the empyrean's gem,
its cloak of frost unloosed, grows bold.
Now comes the days resounding with the cuckoo
and sweet mango scent
to cut the hearts of ladies separated from their lovers.

The progressive verbs add to the feeling of hope that Spring brings. Desire and longing are stretched throughout the poem in the images of bristling pink buds and sweet mango. Spring is a rush to the senses, painfully overwhelming in the final line.

The above images are Indian stamps--the first is a scene of Spring and the second is of Winter. They can be found here.

Shakuntala - Kalidasa

Kalidasa was a poet and dramatist in 5th century India. Though little is known of his personal life, his poems and plays are still treasured--Kalidasa is considered by many to be the greatest of Indian writers.

Shakuntala (or Abhijñānaśākuntalam, "The recognition of Shakuntala") is his most famous play. It was taken from a tale in the Mahabharata and recounts the joy and pain in the relationship between Shakuntala and the King Dushyanta. Abandoned by her parents as a baby, Shakuntala is adopted by the rishi Kanva. When King Dushyanta is hunting in the forest, he comes upon Shakuntala and is immediately drawn to her beauty. Dushyanta and Shakuntala fall in love and marry, but Dushyanta must return to his duties in the city and Shakuntala must wait for her adoptive father to return from a pilgrimage before she can join the King in his palace.

While the pregnant Shakuntala daydreams of her new husband in her hut, she receives a visitor--the powerful rishi Durvasas. Durvasas finds her inattention despicable, and curses her marriage:

"Because your heart, by loving fancies blinded,
scorned a guest in pious life grown old,
a lover shall forget you though reminded,
or think of you as of a story told."

So Dushyanta forgets his bride entirely. Shakuntala's brother pleads with the rishi to lift his curse, but he is unable to take back the words, and can offer only one condition that will restore the king's memory. Dushyanta gave Shakuntala a ring before leaving. Once the ring is returned to him, his memory will return. Sadly, Shakuntala loses the ring in a river as she travels to the city. When she arrives at Dushyanta's palace and confronts the dubious king with the reality of their marriage, she realizes the ring is gone. Shakuntala is abandoned by her family in Dushyanta's palace, then is whisked away by a goddess to a peaceful mountain where she can live as an ascetic and raise her child. Dushyanta doesn't give the matter another thought.

A fisherman later recovers the ring and turns it into the authorities. It eventually makes its way back to the king. Once Dushyanta touches it, all memory of Shakuntala rushes back to him, and he mourns the wife and child that he has lost. He completely ignores his kingdom, devoting all his time gazing upon a miniature of his wife that was created by his description.

Years pass by. Indra orders Dushyanta to destroy a group of demons, and he does so, goaded by Indra's chariot driver into anger so that he could forget his misery. On returning to his kingdom after defeating the demons, Dushyanta rests on a mountain that is home to an ancient and famous sage. As he waits for an audience with the sage, Dushyanta sees a handsome and strong boy playing with a lion cub. Dushyanta speaks with the boy and notices imperial birthmarks on his hands. He becomes hopeful that he has somehow discovered his son, and asks to meet the boy's mother. Dushyanta is brought before Shakuntala, and the two have a tearful reunion.

The son of Dushyanta and Shakuntala is Bharata, the ancestor of the Kauravas and Pandavas--the sets of brothers who fight the civil war in the Mahabharata. Thus, the play serves as an introduction to the nobility in their heritage. It also shows that hardship falls upon the righteous, but that suffering will be overcome.

Shakuntala's style is light--the scenes of Shakuntala with her maids or the king with his clown are reminiscent of Shakespeare's comedy, a little self-effacing and slightly bawdy. Love is the primary theme of the play. Divine providence (and intervention) ensures that Dushyanta and Shakuntala find each other at the end of the play. Both characters have grown; Shakuntala in her ascetic prayer and Dushyanta in his battle for Indra. Their love has matured, but it is stronger and steadier for that. I believe that Kalidasa's work reveals the importance of romantic love--that even the gods will work to bring a lasting love between humans.

The Ramayana - Valmiki

The Ramayana is the great Indian epic by Valmiki, composed in verse sometime between the first century BCE and the fifth century CE. According to legend, Valmiki's inspiration for the Ramayana was endowed by Brahma, who was pleased by the plaintive lyric that Valmiki composed when a bird was killed by a hunter. Brahma appeared before Valmiki and asked that he write the Ramayana (the ayana, travels, of Rama) in the same verse form. The Ramayana was the first Sanskrit poem, and Valmiki's version has remained the most popular both for its historical importance and the style. (Ramayana on Wikipedia) I read the prose rendition (by Ramesh Menon) of the Ramayana, mostly in the interest of saving time. I also read the portion of Ralph Griffith's verse translation which was included in the Anderson anthology.

The Ramayana is divided into seven books which follow Rama from birth to death. It is questioned by many whether Valmiki wrote the first and last books, for their style and tone are much different from the other books. They have been deemed crucial to the tale of Rama, however, especially as the first tells of his birth and some of the legends surrounding the characters.

The first book, Bala Kanda, introduces the legend of Ravana, a king with the power to torment even the gods, for he was granted a boon that no god could harm him. As the gods complain about Ravana, Vishnu (the Supreme Deity) descends and announces that he will be born as Rama, so that he can destroy Ravana in a man's form. Rama is born the son of King Dasaratha, the first of four who were gained by a sacrifice done late in the heirless king's life. Rama is his father's favorite, for he is the strongest, the most devoted to virtue, and the firstborn. Rama is deeply attached to Lakshmana, his youngest brother, who follows him like a shadow. After Rama and Lakshmana destroy the demonic creatures--Rakshasas--who kill and disrupt the ascetics living in the forest, they travel to the city of Vishala, where the king Janaka tells them of Sita, his beautiful adopted daughter. Rama wins Sita as his wife and returns home. All are joyous, but the happiness does not last.

In book two, Ayodhya Konda, King Dasaratha notices evil omens, and assumes that his death is near, so he arranges for the crowning of Rama as king. However, Dasaratha's youngest and favorite queen, and the mother of his second son (Bharata), becomes jealous of Rama's fortune, wishing the kingdom for her own son. She reminds the king that he had promised her two boons. She then asks that Rama be banished and his brother Bharata be crowned in his place. The king is devastated. He must uphold his promise, even though that means losing Rama. Rama leaves the kingdom the next morning with his wife Sita and his brother Lakshmana, dressed in the rags of an ascetic.

Book three, Aranya Kanda, details Rama's life after he is banished from the kingdom. He and Lakshmana perform many feats of valor (mostly exterminating Rakshasas), and spend the rest of their time praying, fasting, and waiting for the period of banishment to end. The story turns when Ravana (the powerful Rakshasa king) sees the beautiful Sita. He sends a minion to distract Rama and Lakshmana, then he carries her to his palace across the ocean. When Rama and Lakshmana return to find Sita gone, Rama is heartbroken. He vows to find Sita and wreak vengaence on the Rakshasa king, and here his quest truly begins.

In the fourth book, Kishkinda Kanda, Rama meets Hanuman, a Vanara (translation: monkey). The Vanaras of the Ramayana are not the monkeys of today, however. Hanuman and his followers are fierce warriors who can grow or shrink in stature, leap incredible distances, and roar as they rush into battle. The Vanaras represent man in a closer relationship with nature. When they fight, they don't use bows or maces or chariots--rather, they use the weapons of the earth: rocks, sticks, tree trunks. Hanuman is the incarnation of Shiva, the destroyer of evil, and he is the son of Vayu, the Hindu deity of the wind. Rama befriends Hanuman by helping him to regain his kingdom, and Hanuman sends his Vanara troops in all directions to find Sita. They eventually learn the the Rakshasa kingdom is across the seemingly endless ocean.

Book five, Sundara Kanda, begins with Hanuman leaping across the ocean to Lanka, the island of the Rakshasas, hoping against all hope that he won't fall short and plunge to his death into the water below. When Hanuman arrives in Lanka, he shrinks himself and explores the island, trying to become as familiar as possible with the buildings and Rakshasa ways so that that Rama and the Vanaras will be able to defeat Ravana. He finds Sita and tries to rescue her, but she insists that she must wait for Rama. Before Hanuman leaves, he witnesses Ravana trying unsuccessfully to woo Sita. Ravana declares that if Sita does not give into him within two months, he will have his guards cut her to pieces. Angered by Ravana's claim Hanuman destoys the mango grove they are in and sets fire to the city before leaping back across the ocean and conferring with Rama.

In the sixth book, Yuddha Kanda, Rama decides that a bridge must be built across the ocean so that he, Lakshmana, and the entire Vanara army can get to Lanka. As they begin building, Ravanas brother arrives. He has deserted the ignoble Ravana and wants to aid Rama in the ensuing battle. Rama and his army reach Lanka and a fierce battle threatens to destroy both armies until it is decided that the victor should be decided by combat between Rama and Ravana. The opponents seem evenly matched, but Rama defeats Ravana, and a shower of petals falls. Sita and Rama are reunited, but Rama states that "no man of honor can take home a woman who has lived in his enemy's house for so many moons." Sita must prove her virtue by walking into fire. After she does so, and survives, Rama accepts her as his wife.

The seventh book, Uttara Kanda, tells the stories of Rama and Sita after they return to Rama's kingdom. Rama learns that the people of his kingdom suspect that Sita has betrayed him, and that they fear their wives will follow what they believe to be Sita's example. Sita is considered to be unfit as Rama's queen, and she is banished. She is abandoned, and becomes an ascetic. She gives birth to twin boys months later, and those twins eventually lead Rama to her. Rama realizes he shouldn't have banished Sita and asks her to return as his queen. Sita admits that she will always love Rama, but that she no longer wishes to live in this world, and she is escorted by the Earth Goddess into the earth. Rama grieves the loss of Sita, and the rest of his ten thousand year rule is lonely, though fruitful for his people. Late in life Rama is approached by a messenger who informs him that he is the incarnation of Vishnu. The messenger is Yama (Death), and he was sent by Brahma to give Rama the option of leaving the earth. Rama realizes that his work on earth is complete and leaves his corporeal form.

The theme of karma, a summation and assessment of all one's action, is central to the poem, and all characters experience life (and, more importantly, death) according to their ability to fulfill their respective duties on earth. Ravana's character is very interesting: although he was a good and just king to his people, and though he was pious and performed many rituals to the gods, his actions were motivated by a lust for power. For actions to be beneficial to karma, they must be selflessly performed as a duty to God, without thought to the reward or punishment. Ravana merely sought to please the gods so that they would bestow their powers on him. His concern for the self led to a proud nature, and to the destruction of every material and worldly connection that Ravana strove to preserve in his fight against Rama.

Sita's role in the epic is also very intriguing. Being herself an incarnation of the powerful god Lakshmi (and Vishnu), she is in full possession of powers capable of destroying Ravana if she tried. But she doesn't try. There are no moments during which Sita is tempted to take matters into her own hands and solve the problem of her own captivity. She waits patiently for Rama to arrive and save her. This complacency seemed very strange at first--it would seem that Sita's most virtuous act would be to vanquish her oppressor. But Sita's role as a woman forbids her from taking action, powerful though she may be. I believe, however, that it is Sita's refusal to engage in violence which allows Rama's victory. Sita remains in ascetic prayer during her captivity, ever invoking the gods, pleading for their aid and interference. Her prayers are heard even more clearly because she is pure of evil intent--she does not wish to harm Ravana out of spite, only out of justice. Using power is not the dharma of a woman, and if Sita were to ignore her dharma, she would become tainted. Sita knows her role, and fulfills it by patiently accepting the situation. Her role symbolizes the unattachment to the earthly condition that man must realize in order to lose pride and find God.

The last book of the Ramayana is a testament to this release of material attachment. Rama must banish the queen whom he loves dearly--he must fulfill his duty as king without attachment as an act of love for God. He fears that allowing Sita to continue as his queen would cause a disintegration in the social organization of his kingdom which only the sanctity of marriage holds in place. Rama must choose then between the love for his queen, and ultimately, the love for God. He chooses God and dharma, and suffers alone while on earth. But he finds God (in himself) before his death, and his soul ascends to heaven.

The image at the top right is of Valmiki composing the Ramayana, and can found here. The next image is of Dasaratha, grieving as he banishes Rama (source). Following is Hanuman and Rama (source). And lastly, Rama, flanked by Lakshmana and Sita, with Hanuman kneeling in front (source).

The Rigveda

The Rigveda is a collection of Sanskrit hymns, likely composed 1700-1100 BCE. The more than 1,000 verses of the Rigveda praise the multiple gods of the early Vedic religion, and most were likely used during ritual sacrifice. The vedas name Greek, Latin, and Persian gods, suggesting that the disparate religions underwent an evolution from an earlier common religion. The vedas were preserved by an oral tradition until the advent of the printing press. The Rigveda is generally interepreted symbollically by contemporary Hindus, rather than used for ritual chanting. It is viewed as a piece of transcendental literature. The following is the first hymn of the Rigveda, directed toward Agni, the god who represents fire.

Agni

I Laud Agni, the chosen Priest, God, minister of sacrifice,
The hotar, lavishest of wealth.
Worthy is Agni to be praised by living as by ancient seers.
He shall bring hitherward the Gods.
Through Agni man obtaineth wealth, yea, plenty waxing day by day,
Most rich in heroes, glorious.
Agni, the perfect sacrifice which thou encompassest about
Verily goeth to the Gods.
May Agni, sapient-minded Priest, truthful, most gloriously great,
The God, come hither with the Gods.
Whatever blessing, Agni, thou wilt grant unto thy worshipper,
That, Agniras, is indeed thy truth.
To thee, dispeller of the night, O Agni, day by day with prayer
Bringing thee reverence, we come
Ruler of sacrifices, guard of Law eternal, radiant One,
Increasing in thine own abode.
Be to us easy of approach, even as a father to his son:
Agni, be with us for our weal.

Agni receives much attention in the Rigveda--only slightly less than Indra, who is the ruler of the gods. And he is the first god mentioned in the Rigveda. It seems strange that a lesser god would be mentioned and praised before Indra, but one must remember that most of the hymns involved ritual sacrifice--Agni consumed the sacrifice and carried it to the gods. It only makes sense that Agni should be called first. Agni is also the god who brings light and rids darkness, he is the illuminator, allowing man to see his path clearly and enabling him to reach an understanding of the Supreme Being. The wealth that man may obtain is happiness, during life and after death, gained by making choices in the interest of his spiritual and material well-being. Thus, Agni can symbolize the willingness of the mind to embrace divinity and shed self-love, the darkness that weighs the soul.

The image above represents the god Agni, his two heads representing his power to nourish and destroy, and his many arms are rays of light streaming from his body. The image was found in a gallery of the Hindu gods here.

The Mahabharata - Vyasa

The Mahabharata is a Sanskrit epic allegedly composed by Vyasa, who appears in the narration as the man who fathers both Dhristarastra and Pandu, the progenators of the Kurus and Pandavas--the lines of men who battle the epic war that the Mahabharata relates. Of his own work, Vyasa states:

“In the realm of dharma, artha, kama, and moksha—ethics, economy, pleasure, and
liberation—whatever is found in this epic may be found elsewhere, but what is
not found here will be impossible to find anywhere else.”

There is truth in his statement, for through the narration and the voices of its characters, the Mahabharata guides the audience in all spiritual and worldly concerns. The longest epic poem in the world, the Mahabharata has survived 2500 years as a religious and philosophical lodestone.

A synopsis for the Mahabharata can be found at this link.

The power of asceticism is frequently revealed in the text. At the beginning of their exile, the Pandava brothers retreat to the woods with nothing but despair for the kingdom they've lost. The oldest, Yudhisthira--incarnation of the god of wisdom--engages in a lengthy discussion with a leader of brahmins (religious ascetics), Shaunaka, who explains that "the root of suffering is attachment to matter...One who has renounced attachment, even though living in the world, becomes free from evil passions and the suffering they produce." (224)

The brothers heed the brahmin's advice--they spend 12 years of exile concealed in the forest, fasting and praying. The rituals they perform lead to visions of and visits from several powerful gods. The sun god appears before Yudisthira and promises to provide sustenance for the brothers and their followers for their years of exile. Arjuna travels to heaven and receives powerful celestial weapons from the gods Shiva, Yamaraja, Varuna, and Indra himself, the greatest of the gods. These weapons will later secure victory for the Pandavas in the war against their cousins--though outnumbered, they will fight with the strength and power of the gods.

It is their ascetic rituals which purify the brothers enough to see, receive blessings from, and interact with the gods. By relinquishing the earth, they become godlike themselves, a constant theme in Hindu literature. At the end of the epic, the brothers approach heaven. They must travel a great distance across the unforgiving Himalayas, and the brothers are individually felled by the spiritual weaknesses they showed on earth. Sahadeva falls because he considered himself to be the wisest of men. Nakula dies because he thought he was the most physically attractive man. Arjuna falls because he was too proud of his skill as a warrior. Bhima dies because he was a glutton. The four brothers were guilty of self-love. Only Yudhisthira completes the journey, for he has devoted his life to selflessly serving his dharma.

Yudhisthira is taken by Indra to "heaven," where he sees many fallen warriors engaging in pleasures similar to those they sought on earth. This is not the final resting place for their souls, which still have a long road to travel before they reach oneness with god. Yudhisthira asks to join his brothers, and hell is revealed to him. He is shocked at first, but Indra explains that even the most noble humans perform a sin in their lives, and must therefore see a small part of hell before they join him paradise. Indra then takes all of the Pandavas to the highest level of heaven, where they are revealed in their god forms and return to their posts as eternal servants to Indra.

The epic concludes by explaining Indra's role as Krishna on earth:

"The Lord's only business was to bring all suffering souls back to their eternal positions as his loving servants. He only seemed to become involved in the affairs of the world, but in truth he was always aloof. Under illusion, men become bewildered and indulge in material pleasure, imagining themselves independent enjoyers. In reality, they were parts of the Supreme, dependent upon him for everything. Actual happiness could only be found when one once again gave up his desires to be independent of God." (908)

It is no wonder the epic poem is so central to the Hindu culture and religion. Its discussion of the intangible philosophies about justice, duty, and fate is enlightening and clarifying. Immersed in a world of gods and warriors, battling to their inevitable places in heaven, one begins to understand the role of man in God's plan.

Mahabharata synopsis

The Mahabharata begins after the death of a childless king. The king's brother, the powerful rishi Vyasa, assumes the duty of impregnating his queens. The first queen, disgusted by Vyasa's appearance, closes her eyes during the act, and the child (Dhristarastra) is born blind. Because a blind man cannot become king, Vyasa approaches the other queen, who gives birth to healthy son (Pandu). To ensure that the line will continue if something happens to both princes, Vyasa is asked to visit the first queen again, who secretly forces her maid to take her place. The third son (Vidura) is thus disqualified to become king by his illegitimacy, and only Pandu is fit for the throne.

Dhristarastra and his wife are granted 100 sons by Vyasadeva's blessing. His first son, however, is born among inauspicious omens, and Dhristarastra is advised by his sage father to kill the infant before he brings about the destruction of their entire line. Dhristarastra is too weak to heed the hard advice, and allows his first-born son to live.

Pandu, after being cursed by a rishi to die at the moment he lies with any woman, entreats his wives to conceive children by another man, for his dharma as king is to create offspring that will continue his line. His wives refuse--such action would be sin for them. He commands them to bear offspring, and they chant mantras that require the gods to appear and perform the chanter's bidding. Thus, Pandu has five sons fathered by the gods: Yudhisthira, son of Dharma (the god of justice); Bhima, son of Vayu (the strongest of the gods); Arjuna, son of Indra (the king of the gods); and the twins Nakula and Sahadeva, sons of the Ashvini twin gods (the gods of sunrise and sunset).

Dhuryodhana, Dhristarastra's eldest son, is filled with jealousy for Pandu's sons (the Pandavas), especially when they return to the city after Pandu's death. He dislikes Bhima the most because he is effortlessly strong and somewhat arrogant. Duryodhana conceives a plan to kill Bhima with poison, but even enough poison to kill 100 men fails to cause him any harm. Duryodhana enlists his brothers and his father in another attempt on the Pandavas lives. He is nearly successful on the second try, and the Pandavas (along with their mother) flee the city, unwilling to engage their 100 cousins in battle.

They travel as ascetics, gaining power through their ritual sacrifices to the gods, until they hear of the contest to win the holy woman Draupadi as wife (a contest similar to that performed by the suitors to Penelope in the Odyssey). The Pandavas journey to the home of Draupadi in complete anonimity. It is decided that Arjuna will contend for her hand, and he is victorious. When the Pandavas return to their mother and announce that they have won a prize, she unthinkingly says the brothers must share it amongst themselves. Her command cannot go unfollowed (so that she will never have spoken a lie), and after a long discussions about the implications of a woman having five husbands, it is decided that Draupadi can marry all five brothers in consecutive ceremonies without performing wrong.

Draupadi's father restores the Pandavas, giving them aid and allies as part of Draupadi's dowry. Learning of their return, and fearing retribution for the attack on their lives, Dhristarastra gives the Pandavas half the kingdom. This action renders Duryodhana more envious of the brothers than ever before. One of Draupadi's brothers is Krishna, embodiment of the Supreme Person, god of gods. Krishna helps the Pandavas rebuild the beautiful kingdom of Hastinapura, and it appears to mortals as heaven on earth. The Pandavas rule well and peacefully. Yudhisthira is crowned emperor of the world.

It is at this point which Duryodhana vows to take back the entire kingdom. Duryodhana comes up with the scheme to invite the Pandava brothers to play at dice, a game which his uncle excels at, and plans to incite the brothers to wager more and more in a game they cannot win (the dice are charmed), until they lose the entire kingdom. Yudhisthira loses everything, and becomes so hotheaded in his desire to win that he wages his brothers, himself, and their queen, Draupadi.

When Draupadi is lost to Dhristarastra and his son Duryodhana, they send a guard to fetch her. She refuses to make an appearance in the court because she cannot believe the claim that would be lost in a game of dice, and also because she is dressed in her undergarments with unbound hair. The man drags her by her hair into the main hall, and the Kurus subject her to lascivious remarks and gestures. Bhima must be restrained to keep from killing the Kurus present. The Pandavas can honorably do nothing to protect their wife against this indecency--this sin--for they are all slaves to the Kurus. The Pandavas are seething, and Dhristarastra's council hears the evil omens of jackals cackling and donkeys braying. Dhristarastra stops his sons from tormenting Draupadi and begs her to forgive them. He asks her to demand a boon. She asks that the Pandavas be released from slavery, and Dhristarastra assents. The Pandavas return to their kingdom with Draupadi.

Duryodhana is not satisfied, however, claiming that his father is too soft. He devises another strategy involving the dice game to rid himself of the Pandavas. The losers of the game would exiled to the forest for 13 years. In the final year, they could leave the forest, but they would have to remain unknown--if they were discovered, they would have to return to the forest for another twelve years. Yudhisthira must accept the stakes and must play at the king's behest, out of honor and respect for his elder. The Pandavas lose and repair to the forest with their wife.

While in the forest, the brothers meditate, pray, and train. Arjuna receives a blessing from the gods, and becomes the greatest warrior on earth. Bhima grows stronger and more spiteful. Yudisthira becomes wise through prayer and fasting. When the twelve years end, the brothers and Draupadi stealthily make their exit from the woods and are absorbed in another kingdom, playing the parts of a king's adviser (Yudisthira), a cook (Bhima), a lady's maid (Draupadi), and a eunuch (Arjuna--long story...). At the end of their final year in exile, the Pandavas return to their kingdom.

Presented before Dhristarastra and Duryodhana, the Pandavas make their claim, demanding the forfeit of their kingdom. Duryodhana, however, argues that they have returned a day early. After consulting the calendar, Dhristarastra's council agrees with Duryodhana--the Pandavas ended their exile early, and the penalty is another 13 years in the wilderness. The brothers are infuriated. They leave the kingdom.

Krishna attempts at negotiating with Duryodhana, councilling him that his best interests lie with the brave and strong Pandavas. But his attempts are futile. The Pandavas and the Kurus prepare for war.

The preparations for battle are bitter--cousins are armed against one another. The kingdom, once peaceful and prosperous, collapses under the weight of Duryodhana's greed. As their cousin and as Draupadi's brother, Krishna allies himself with the Pandavas. The Kurus are bothered little by the power of their opponents, for their numbers far outweigh the Pandavas'.

When the armies finally meet on the battlefield, Krishna (having vowed not to strike a man in this battle) drives Arjuna's chariot. Arjuna is weakened by the sight of his grandfather and mentor standing amidst the Kuru forces. Krishna strengthens his resolve by explaining that all beings are transcendent and must perform their dharma. When he strikes his cousins, Arjuna is not killing them--he cannot kill their eternal souls, the parts of them that are God--he only destroys their ties to earth. This segment is the "Bhagavad Gita" (Song of God), a Hindi religious text in itself.

Many of the greatest warriors fall in this 18-day battle--widows and orphans lament Duryodhana's greed. But all five Pandavas are victorious survivors, and are welcomed back as the rulers of the kingdom in a joyous parade. The remainder of the story chronicles their happy lives until Krishna departs from earth and the brothers assume the lives of aesthetics. They climb the highest peaks of the Himalayas, making their way towards heaven. The Pandavas fall, one by one, along the way, claimed by death. Yudisthira is the last remaining. He receives a vision from Indra, sees his entire family in the different levels of heaven, and then joins them in the highest level to which a soul can aspire.

The Vendor of Sweets - R.K. Narayan

R.K. Narayan (1906-2001) is one of the most widely read Indian novelists. He wrote the majority of his works in English, with an energy that captures the humor and passion in the average life.

The Vendor of Sweets is a short novel that follows the difficult relationship between Jagan and his son, Mali. The dissension is caused primarily by a generation gap; Jagan can't understand his son's careless actions, and Mila resents his father's rigidity. The main focus on the novel, however, is on Jagan's spiritual development.

Jagan was a follower of Ghandi during India's revolution, and was even jailed for acting in demonstrations. He follows all Ghandi's edicts without fail--he wore a simple robe, ate simple food (no rice--just cooked wheat, etc.), and lived without extraneous possessions. He has written a book on living naturally, and patiently awaits its publication. Jagan runs a prosperous sweet-shop, but beyond this business, he lives an ascetic life within the society.

Mali, however, doesn't follow his father's example. He is rather the average, aimless college student. He declares he wants to be a writer and uses his father's money to attend school in the United States. Jagan is at first concerned by Mali's cunning--he stole the hidden money and kept his plans a secret--but attributes that cunning to intelligence and takes pride in his son's actions.

When Mali returns home (bringing with him, Grace, a wife of uncertain heredity), he explains to his father that he is no longer going to simply write--he is going to mass-produce a novel-writing machine. He plans to market the machines so successfully, that there will be one in every Indian home, and India's literary output will rival western countries'. Narayan description of the novel-writing machine is amusing, but his motives for introducing this far-fetched creation are grave. When writing becomes process and formula, it loses its beneficence.

It is implied that more than literature is at stake--the machine endangers all of Indian civilization. Jagan argues that Vyasa, Kalidasa, and all other great Indian authors relied on not on machines, but on inspiration from God. The machine that Mali proposes to build replaces man's connection to God with dependence on machine.

Mali requires capital, however, to fund his business, and expects it from his father. Jagan does not have the amount of money Mali needs, and through their continual miscommunication, this fact is never clarified. In addition, as the plot unfolds, Jagan learns that Mali and Grace have not actually married. He is infuriated at the taint they have brought upon the family home. He does not wish to speak to them, for fear of sullying himself further, and he finds it harder and harder to keep his distance at home.

Jagan worries about his son and his sweet-shop for a lifetime. On his sixtieth birthday, traditionally considered to be a time of rebirth (of beginning a new janma), Jagan suddenly releases himself from the burden of earthly cares. He walks away from his shop, leaving the keys with his cousin. He decides that his son can take care of himself. He repairs to the run-down temple in the idyllic countryside, freed from his worldly obligations. He has, in effect, died from the world and discovered eternal peace.

World religions are not strangers to the idea of asceticism being a release from earth and propulsion to God. Jagan's separation from his cares allows him the clarity he missed before. He understands that his son and Grace live in a different world, and he knows that their actions will not taint his soul, for he is a separate being reliant only upon his connection with God.

The God of Small Things - Arundhati Roy

The God of Small Things is a beautifully written novel that explores the limitations of the traditional caste system, the raging of Communism in modern India, and the culture's inherited fatalism.

The story is focused primarily on a set of fraternal twins whose lives are deeply scarred by the early destruction of their family. The beginning of the tragedy lurks invisibly at some point in the past--at the very first moment, the theme of the novel suggests, for every action in the piece is actually a reaction. But for the purposes of a synopsis, Roy's story begins with the Christmas visit of the twins' cousin, Sophie Mol, and her mother from England--the "ex-family" of their uncle. Sophie Mol dies on this trip, the audience is told, and the vacation begins a downfall for the twins.

One of the twins' favorite playmates is a man named Velutha, an Untouchable. He is revealed as generous, patient, and creative, whittling small toys and caring for his father and disabled brother. Ammu, the twins' mother, watches her children play with Velutha and feels herself almost envy their closeness with him, the moments of enjoyment which exclude her. There is suddenly a sexual tension which springs between the two, germinated by the twins' recognition of beauty and kindness.

"The man standing in the shade of the rubber trees with coins of sunshine dancing hon his body, holding her daughter in his arms, glanced up and caught Ammu's gaze. Centuries telescoped into one evanescent moment. History was wrong-footed, caught off guard. Sloughed off like an old snakeskin. Its marks, its scars, its wounds from old wars and the walking-backwards days all fell away. In its absence it left an aura, a palpable shimmering that was as plain to see as the water in a river or the sun in the sky. As plain to feel as the heat on a hot day, or the tug of a fish on a taut line. So obvious that no one noticed." (Roy, 167)

Because Velutha belongs to the class of Untouchables, it is unthinkable for Ammu to have any relationship with him beyond courteous condescension. They are very aware of the social laws against loving each other, but the laws give them little pause once desire has taken root.

When it becomes painfully obvious to the family that Ammu has slept with Velutha, the matriarch fears ostracization. Ammu's aunt (jealous and spiteful) files a charge of rape at the police station to salvage the family reputation. After Sophie Mol drowns and her body is found in the river, Velutha, found with the twins in an abandoned shack, becomes the prime suspect of rape, murder, and kidnapping. He is beaten mercilessly by the police and dies of the injuries he sustains.

The fallout is tragic. Estha and Rahel, the twins, blame themselves for Sophie Mol's and Velutha's death. (They were in a boat on the river--it tipped over and Sophie Mol, unaccustomed to swimming in the current, drowned.) Ammu, their mother, feels her actions brought about Velutha's torturous death. The three fall away from each other in grieving. There is a sense, however, that their actions were predetermined.

The plot progresses from the beginning and end at once, traveling back and forth in a span of 23 years to finally reach the climax in the middle--the death of Sophie Mol and the transgression committed by Ammu and Velutha--both at once cause and effect. Events which occur have, in this pattern of story-telling, already happened. This fatalism seems almost inescapable; individuals are predisposed to reaction. The characters seem aware of this concept, but they struggle with their culpability. They are shamed, but feel they somehow always owned this shame; it only became evident at some point. They are fallen, have always been, with no means of ascending.